SWOT with Narayankar

Table of content: 1. Plants 2. Animals 3. Humans 4. Gods Plant Plants are the eukaryotes that form the kingdom Plantae ; they are predominantly photosynthetic . This means that they obtain their energy from sunlight , using chloroplasts derived from endosymbiosis with cyanobacteria to produce sugars from carbon dioxide and water, using the green pigment chlorophyll . Exceptions are parasitic plants that have lost the genes for chlorophyll and photosynthesis, and obtain their energy from other plants or fungi. Animal Historically, as in Aristotle's biology , the plant kingdom encompassed all living things that were not animals , and included algae and fungi . Definitions have narrowed since then; current definitions exclude the fungi and some of the algae. By the definition used in this article, plants form the clade Viridiplantae (green plants), which consists of the green algae and the embryophytes or land plants ( hornworts ,

Gametophytic Generation VS Sphorophytic Generation

In plants, the life cycle involves two alternating generations: the gametophytic generation and the sporophytic generation. 1. **Gametophytic Generation:** - **Definition:** This is the phase in which the plant exists as a gametophyte, which is a haploid organism (having only one set of chromosomes). - **Key Features:** Gametophytes produce gametes (sex cells) through processes like mitosis. In simpler terms, it's like the plant's reproductive phase where it forms cells for sexual reproduction. - **Example:** In mosses, the moss plant you typically see is the gametophyte. 2. **Sporophytic Generation:** - **Definition:** This is the phase in which the plant exists as a sporophyte, which is a diploid organism (having two sets of chromosomes). - **Key Features:** Sporophytes produce spores through meiosis. Spores are like reproductive cells that can give rise to a new gametophytic generation. - **Example:** In ferns, the leafy plant you commonly see is the sporop

Dominant (of a phase which is longer lived)

When we say a life cycle stage is "dominant," we mean that it is the more conspicuous, larger, and longer-lived phase in the life cycle of an organism. In the context of plant life cycles: 1. **Dominant Phase:** - If the sporophyte is dominant, it means that the plant spends most of its life in the diploid (2n) state. - Vascular plants like trees and flowering plants typically have a dominant sporophyte phase. 2. **Independent Phase:** - If the gametophyte is independent, it means that this haploid (1n) phase can exist and grow on its own. - In some plants, like mosses and ferns, the gametophyte is a separate and free-living organism. It can carry out its own metabolic functions and reproduce independently. So, "dominant" refers to the stage that is more prominent in the life cycle, and "independent" means that the organism at that stage can exist and function on its own, rather than being dependent on the other stage.

Spermatophyte VS Gametophyte

In simple terms, plants go through a life cycle that involves two main stages: the sporophyte and the gametophyte. 1. **Sporophyte:** - The sporophyte is the diploid, or 2n, phase of the plant life cycle. - It begins with the fertilization of gametes (sperm and egg) and develops into a multicellular structure. - This stage is usually dominant in vascular plants like trees and flowers. - The sporophyte produces spores through a process called meiosis. 2. **Gametophyte:** - The gametophyte is the haploid, or 1n, phase of the plant life cycle. - It develops from spores and produces gametes (sperm and egg) through mitosis. - In contrast to sporophytes, gametophytes are generally smaller and simpler in structure. - In some plants, like mosses, the gametophyte stage is the dominant and independent phase. In summary, the sporophyte is the phase where plants produce spores, and it's usually the more visible and complex part of the life cycle. The gametophyte, on th

Locomotion & Structure of skeletal muscles

Q. Describe the location and structure of skeletal muscles. Ans: i. Location: Major part of skeletal muscles which move the bones do not lie on the same bone but they are located on the bone atop. e.g. Biceps and triceps that move the forearm are located in the upper arm. ii. Structure: At any joint, two types of bones are present i.e., stationary and movable. The end of the skeletal muscle to which the stationary bone is attached is called the origin whereas the opposite end attached to movable bone is called insertion. The middle thick part of the muscle is called as belly. All the fibres in a muscle do not extend from end to end and they are maximum in the middle part of the muscle. Thus, most of the large muscles are fusiform in shape. Q. Explain the types of straited muscles. Ans: On the basis of movements, striated muscles are of three types: i. Agonists: are considered as the prime movers. They bring about the initial movement of a part. E.g.: biceps. ii. Antagonists: They bring

Difference between working capacity of Red Muscle and White Muscle fibre

Q. Why a red muscle can work for a prolonged period whereas white muscle fibre suffers from fatigue after a shorter work? Ans: i. Red muscle fibres contain large amount of myoglobin and mitochondria (site of aerobic respiration), whereas white muscles fibres contain lesser amount of myoglobin and mitochondria. ii. Myoglobin is an iron-containing pigment that carries oxygen molecules to muscle tissues. Abundance of these pigments in red muscle fibres supports higher rate of aerobic respiration, whereas white muscle fibres have less mitochondria and depend upon anaerobic respiration. iii. Anaerobic respiration in muscle white fibres leads to the production of lactic acid and accumulation of higher of levels lactic acid can result in fatigue in white muscle fibres. Thus, red muscle fibres can perform prolonged work and show less fatigue due to accumulation of negligible amount loss or of lactic acid, whereas white muscle fibres suffer from fatigue after a shorter work due to accumulation

Locomotion

Q. What is locomotion? Ans: The change in locus of whole body of living organism from one place to another place is called locomotion. Q. State the four basic types of locomotory movements seen in animals. Ans: The four basic types locomotory movements seen in animals are: i. Amoeboid movement: It is performed by pseudopodia. e.g. leucocytes. ii. Ciliary movement: It is performed by cilia. e.g. ciliated epithelium. In Paramoecium, cilia help in passage of food through cytopharynx. iii. Whirling movement: It is performed by flagella. e.g. sperms. iv. Muscular movement: It is performed by muscles, with the help of bones and joints. Q. Movements and locomotion is necessary in animals. Give Reason. Ans: i. Movement is one of the important characteristics of all the living organisms. Animals exhibit wide range of movements like rhythmic beating of heart, movement of diaphragm during respiration, ingestion of food, movement of eyeballs, etc. ii. Locomotion results into change in place or loc

Location & structure of skeletal muscles

i. Location : Major part of skeletal muscles which move the bones do not lie on the same bone but they are located on the bone atop. e.g. Biceps and triceps that move the forearm are located in the upper arm. ii. Structure : At any joint, two types of bones are present i.e., stationary and movable. The end of the skeletal muscle to which the stationary bone is attached is called the origin whereas the opposite end attached to movable bone is called insertion. The middle thick part of the muscle is called as belly. All the fibres in a muscle do not extend from end to end and they are maximum in the middle part of the muscle. Thus, most of the large muscles are fusiform in shape

Structure of myosin & actin filaments.

i. Myosin filament: a. Each myosin filament is a polymerized protein. Many meromyosins (monomeric proteins) i constitute one thick filament. b. Myosin molecule consists of two heavy chains (heavy meromyosin / HMM) coiled around each other forming a double helix. One end of each of these chains is projected outwardly is known as cross bridge . This end folds to form a globular protein mass called myosin head . c. Two light chains are associated with each head forming 4 light chains/light meromyosin / LMM. d. Myosin head has a special ATPase activity . It can split ATP to produce energy. e. Myosin contributes 55% of muscle proteins. f. In sarcomere, myosin tails are arranged to point towards the centre of the sarcomere and the heads point to the sides of the myofilament band. ii. Actin filament : It is a complex type of contractile protein. It is made up of three components: a. F actin : It forms the backbone of actin filament. F actin is made up of two helica

Helllooooo

November 27, 2023

Helloooooooo isstudents !!!!!

Division Angiospermae VS Division Gymnospermae

Angiosperms and gymnosperms are two major groups of seed-producing plants. 1. **Angiosperms (Flowering Plants):** - **Seeds:** Angiosperms produce seeds enclosed within a fruit. - **Reproduction:** Reproduction often involves flowers, where pollination leads to the formation of seeds within the ovary. - **Examples:** Examples include most familiar plants like roses, sunflowers, and fruit-bearing trees. 2. **Gymnosperms (Non-Flowering Plants):** - **Seeds:** Gymnosperms produce seeds that are not enclosed within a fruit; they are exposed on the surface of cone scales. - **Reproduction:** Reproduction typically occurs through the production of cones. Pollen from male cones fertilizes the seeds in female cones. - **Examples:** Common gymnosperms include conifers like pine trees, spruces, and firs. In summary, the main distinction lies in how seeds are protected and where the reproductive structures are located – within fruits for angiosperms and on cone scales for gymnos

Spermatophyta VS Phanerograms

"Spermatophyta" and "phanerogams" are older terms that have been largely replaced by more modern classifications: 1. **Spermatophyta:** - This term is an older way to refer to seed-producing plants. It includes gymnosperms (like conifers) and angiosperms (flowering plants). - "Sperma" means seed, and "phyta" means plant. So, spermatophyta are plants that produce seeds. 2. **Phanerogams:** - Similarly, this is an older term for seed-bearing plants, specifically those that produce seeds visible to the naked eye. - "Phaner" means visible, and "gamos" means marriage or reproduction. So, phanerogams are plants with visible reproductive structures, which are seeds. In essence, both terms were used to describe groups of plants that produce seeds, with "spermatophyta" focusing on the seed aspect and "phanerogams" emphasizing the visibility of their reproductive structures.

Class Mammalia

Mammalia is a class of animals in the animal kingdom, characterized by certain common features. Mammals are vertebrates, meaning they have a backbone, and they belong to the subphylum Vertebrata within the phylum Chordata. Here are some key characteristics that define the class Mammalia: 1. **Hair or Fur:** Mammals typically have hair or fur covering their bodies at some stage in their life. This feature helps in regulating body temperature. 2. **Mammary Glands:** Female mammals have mammary glands that produce milk to nourish their young. This is a distinguishing feature of the class. 3. **Warm-Blooded (Endothermic):** Mammals are warm-blooded animals, meaning they can regulate their body temperature internally. This allows them to maintain a relatively constant temperature, independent of the external environment. 4. **Live Birth:** Most mammals give birth to live young, although there are exceptions such as monotremes (platypus and echidna) which lay eggs. 5. **Vertebrates:** Mammal

Classification

Cryptograms VS Phanerograms

Cryptograms and Phanerograms are terms used in botany to describe certain plant characteristics. 1. **Cryptograms:** - **Definition:** Cryptograms refer to plants that reproduce using spores instead of seeds. - **Characteristics:** These plants, such as ferns and mosses, don't produce flowers or seeds. Instead, they release spores, which are tiny reproductive cells, to grow into new plants. - **Example:** Ferns are a common example of cryptograms. 2. **Phanerograms:** - **Definition:** Phanerograms are plants that reproduce through seeds. - **Characteristics:** Unlike cryptograms, these plants produce flowers and seeds for reproduction. Seeds are usually enclosed in fruits. - **Example:** Most of the familiar plants, like flowering plants, trees, and grasses, are phanerograms. In essence, the main difference lies in their reproductive strategies – cryptograms use spores, while phanerograms use seeds.

Order Carnivora

Order Carnivora is a diverse group of mammals that includes carnivorous species. Members of this order are characterized by certain dental and cranial features adapted for a carnivorous diet. Carnivores can be found in a variety of environments, and they exhibit a wide range of body sizes and behaviors. The order Carnivora includes several families, each with its own unique characteristics. Some of the major families within Carnivora include: 1. **Canidae (Dogs, Wolves, Foxes):** This family includes domestic dogs, wolves, foxes, and other similar species. Canids are known for their social behavior and adaptations for hunting. 2. **Felidae (Cats):** This family includes domestic cats, lions, tigers, cheetahs, and other feline species. Felids are characterized by retractable claws and a carnivorous diet. 3. **Ursidae (Bears):** This family includes bears, which are generally large and powerful omnivores, although some species have a more carnivorous diet. 4. **Mustelidae (Weasels, Badge

Order Primates

Order Primates is a biological order that includes lemurs, tarsiers, monkeys, apes, and humans. It is one of the major orders of mammals and is characterized by a well-developed brain, forward-facing eyes, and grasping hands. The order is further divided into two suborders: Strepsirrhini (lemurs and lorises) and Haplorhini (tarsiers, monkeys, apes, and humans). Lemurs: Tarsier (Nidhi) The classification of primates is hierarchical and includes various families, genera, and species within each suborder. Here is a general breakdown of the order Primates: **Suborder Strepsirrhini:** 1. Infraorder Lemuriformes: Includes lemurs. 2. Infraorder Lorisiformes: Includes lorises and galagos (bushbabies). **Suborder Haplorhini:** 1. Infraorder Tarsiiformes: Includes tarsiers. 2. Infraorder Simiiformes: Divided into two parvorders: - Parvorder Platyrrhini: New World monkeys (e.g., capuchins, howler monkeys). - Parvorder Catarrhini: Old World mon

Refractive index

The refractive index is a crucial concept in optics, describing how light behaves as it moves from one medium to another. Here are the key aspects: 1. **Definition:** The refractive index (n) of a material is a measure of how much the speed of light is reduced when it travels through that material compared to its speed in a vacuum. 2. **Mathematically:** It's often expressed as the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in the material. 3. **Relation to Speed:** A higher refractive index indicates that light travels slower in that material. For example, glass has a higher refractive index than air. 4. **Snell's Law:** The refractive index plays a crucial role in Snell's Law, which describes how light bends (refracts) when it moves from one medium to another. sin i/sin r = constant = n n is called the refractive index of the second medium with respect to the first medium. This second law is also called Snell’s law. A ray incident along the normal (i =

Laws of Refraction

The laws of refraction are like guidelines that describe how light bends when it moves from one transparent material to another, such as going from air to glass or water. Here are the key points: 1. **Bending Towards or Away:** When light enters a new material, it bends. If it goes from air to a denser material like glass, it bends toward the normal (an imaginary line perpendicular to the surface). If it goes from glass to air, it bends away from the normal. 2. **Change in Speed:** The speed of light changes when it moves from one material to another. It slows down in denser materials and speeds up in less dense ones. 3. **Angle of Incidence and Refraction:** The angle at which the incoming light hits the surface (angle of incidence) and the angle at which it bends inside the new material (angle of refraction) are related. This relationship is described by Snell's Law, which states that the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is consta

Refraction of light

Refraction is like the bending of light when it goes from one transparent material to another, like from air to water or glass. Here's how it works: 1. **Change in Speed:** When light moves from one material to another, its speed changes. It slows down or speeds up depending on the materials involved. 2. **Bending Towards or Away:** The change in speed causes the light to bend. If it goes from air to water, it bends toward the normal (an imaginary line perpendicular to the surface). If it goes from water to air, it bends away from the normal. 3. **Change in Direction:** Because of this bending, the direction of the light changes. However, the frequency remains the same, so the color of the light doesn't change. So, refraction explains why a straw in a glass of water looks bent or why a pencil in a glass of water appears disjointed – it's all about the bending of light as it moves through different substances.

Reflection

Reflection of light is like a bouncing game. When light hits a smooth surface, like a mirror, it bounces back in a predictable way. This bouncing is what we call reflection. The angle at which the light hits the surface is equal to the angle at which it bounces off. So, smooth surfaces act like mirrors, reflecting light and letting us see things around us. The laws of reflection are like rules that light follows when it bounces off a surface: 1. **Incident Ray:** The incoming light ray (incident ray) and the reflected ray are on the same plane. Imagine a flat surface between the light and your eyes. 2. **Normal Line:** The normal is an imaginary line perpendicular to the surface where the light hits. The incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal line all lie in the same plane. 3. **Angle of Incidence Equals Angle of Reflection:** The angle at which the incident ray hits the surface is equal to the angle at which the reflected ray bounces off. This is true if the surface is smooth

Algae

Algae belongs to division Thallophyta. algae grow in marine or fresh water. Most of them are free-living while some are symbiotic. i. Habitat: Algae are mostly aquatic, few grow on other plants as epiphytes and some grow symbiotically. Some algae are epizoic ie, growing or living non-parasitically on the exterior of living organisms. ii. Aquatic Structure: Plant body is thalloid i.e. undifferentiated into root, stem and leaves. They may be small, unicellular, microscopic like Chlorella (non-motile), Chlamydomonas (motile). They can he multicellular, unbranched, filamentous like Spirogyra or branched and filamentous like Chara. Sargassum is a huge iii. macroscopic sea weed which measures more than 60 meters in length. Cell wall: The algal cell wall contains either polysaccharides like cellulose / glucose or a variety of proteins or both. iv. Reserve food material: Reserve food is in the form of starch and its other forms, Photosynthetic pigments: Photosynthetic pigments like chlorophyll

Thallophyta

Thallophyta is a group of lower plants that lack distinct stems, leaves, and roots. Instead, they have a simple body called a thallus, which is undifferentiated into specialized parts. Algae, fungi, and some bacteria fall into this category. Thallophytes can be found in diverse environments, and their reproductive structures vary widely. They play essential roles in ecosystems, contributing to processes like photosynthesis and decomposition.

Symbiosis

Plant symbiosis refers to mutually beneficial relationships between plants and other organisms. Examples include mycorrhizal associations with fungi, where plants exchange nutrients with the fungi, and nitrogen-fixing bacteria in root nodules that help plants acquire nitrogen. These symbiotic relationships enhance plant growth and health. Plant symbiosis encompasses various mutually beneficial relationships between plants and other organisms. Examples include: 1. **Mycorrhizal Symbiosis:** Plants form partnerships with fungi (mycorrhizae) to enhance nutrient uptake. The fungi aid in the absorption of water and nutrients, while the plants provide sugars to the fungi. 2. **Nitrogen-Fixing Symbiosis:** Certain plants, like legumes, host nitrogen-fixing bacteria in their root nodules. These bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into a form that plants can use for growth, benefiting both partners. 3. **Rhizobium-Legume Symbiosis:** Leguminous plants engage in a symbiotic relationship with R

Epiphytes

Epiphytes are plants that grow on other plants, like trees, but they don't take nutrients from them. Instead, they use the host plant for support. Epiphytes get their nutrients from rain, air, and debris that collect around them. They don't harm the host plant; they just hitch a ride and find creative ways to survive in the treetops.

muscle

November 11, 2023

Muscle Structure sarcomere

Endomysium VS Sarcolemma

November 11, 2023

The endomysium and sarcolemma are structures associated with muscle tissue, specifically skeletal muscle fibers. Here are the differences between them: 1. **Location:** - **Endomysium:** This is the connective tissue sheath that surrounds individual muscle fibers (muscle cells). It consists of delicate areolar connective tissue and provides support and protection to each muscle fiber. - **Sarcolemma:** The sarcolemma is the plasma membrane of a muscle cell. It surrounds the muscle fiber and separates the intracellular (inside the cell) environment from the extracellular (outside the cell) environment. 2. **Composition:** - **Endomysium:** It is primarily composed of collagen fibers and other extracellular matrix components. The collagen fibers provide structural support to the muscle fiber. - **Sarcolemma:** The sarcolemma is a phospholipid bilayer that encloses the cytoplasm of the muscle cell. It contains various proteins and channels that are important for muscle cell f

Electromagnetism

November 01, 2023

Solenoid Magnetic field around a bar magnet 4.5 Magnetic effects of a current 4.6 Magnetic field produced around the conductor 4.6 Magnetic field produced around the conductor 4.8 Magnetic field produced by a current 4.9 solenoid 4.10 Force acting on a current carrying conductor in the presence of a magnetic field 4.13 Electromagnetic Induction AC DC generator

4. Ascaris VS Earthworm

Ascaris and earthworms are two different types of worms with distinct characteristics: 1. Classification: - Ascaris is a parasitic roundworm belonging to the phylum Nematoda. It typically infects the intestines of animals, including humans. - Earthworms are segmented worms belonging to the phylum Annelida. They are terrestrial and play a vital role in soil ecosystems. 2. Habitat: - Ascaris worms live in the intestines of their hosts, while their eggs are often found in contaminated soil and water. - Earthworms are primarily terrestrial and inhabit moist soils, helping with soil aeration and decomposition of organic matter. 3. Anatomy: - Ascaris worms have a simple, unsegmented body with a tapered, pointed end. They lack distinct body segments. - Earthworms have a segmented body with a head, a muscular body, and a tail. They have bristle-like structures called setae on their body segments. 4. Feeding: - Ascaris worms are parasitic and feed on the host's intestin

3. Male Ascaris VS Female Ascaris

Male and female Ascaris worms, like many other nematode parasites, exhibit sexual dimorphism. Here are some key differences between male and female Ascaris worms: 1. Size: Female Ascaris worms are typically larger than males. Female worms can reach lengths of up to 30-35 cm, while males are usually around 15-20 cm long. 2. Reproductive organs: The most significant difference lies in their reproductive organs. Females have a long, coiled ovary and a single, long, unbranched reproductive duct. Males possess a pair of coiled testes and two equally long, coiled reproductive ducts. 3. Posterior end: In the posterior end of the worms, females have a straight, pointed tail, while males have a curved, hook-like tail called a copulatory bursa. 4. Copulatory structures: Males have specialized copulatory spicules on their bursa, which are used to grasp the female's reproductive opening during mating. 5. Gonad color: The gonads of males and females often have different colors. In Ascaris lumbr

2. Ostia VS Osculum

Ostia and osculum are two anatomical features found in certain animals, particularly sponges. 1. Ostia: - Ostia (singular: ostium) are small, numerous pores or openings in the body of a sponge. - They are typically located on the outer surface of the sponge. - Ostia are responsible for drawing water into the sponge, allowing it to filter and obtain nutrients from the water. 2. Oscula: - The osculum (singular: osculum) is a larger, usually single opening found in sponges. - It is situated at the top or upper part of the sponge. - The primary function of the osculum is to expel the filtered water, along with waste and other unwanted materials, back into the surrounding environment.

1. Platyhelminthes's parasitic adaptation.